Question 1

The withdrawal of the United States of America from the World Health Organization is set to have far-reaching impacts on global health. Reimagining the existing WHO is vital for the global health agenda. Discuss.

Accepted Answer

The decision by the United States, under the Trump administration, to withdraw from the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2020 (a decision later reversed by the Biden administration) sent shockwaves through the global health community. While the withdrawal was ultimately temporary, the threat itself highlighted the fragility of global health cooperation and underscored the critical need to reimagine and strengthen the WHO for the future global health agenda. Far-Reaching Impacts of US Withdrawal (Hypothetical and Actual): 1. Financial Instability: The US has historically been the largest single donor to the WHO, providing a significant portion of its budget. A withdrawal would have created a massive funding gap, severely impacting the WHO's ability to fund essential programs, including disease surveillance, vaccine distribution, emergency response, and technical assistance to developing countries. 2. Loss of Expertise and Leadership: The US contributes substantial scientific, technical, and public health expertise to the WHO. Its absence would have diminished the organization's capacity for research, policy development, and global health leadership, particularly during crises like pandemics. 3. Weakened Global Health Governance: The withdrawal would have undermined multilateralism and set a dangerous precedent, potentially encouraging other nations to disengage from international health cooperation. This would make coordinated global responses to transnational health threats, such as pandemics, much more difficult and less effective. 4. Geopolitical Vacuum: A US withdrawal could have created a vacuum for other powers, notably China, to increase their influence within the WHO, potentially politicizing global health further and shifting the organization's priorities. 5. Impact on Specific Programs: Critical initiatives like polio eradication, HIV/AIDS prevention, malaria control, and maternal and child health programs, which rely heavily on WHO coordination and fundi

Question 2

The world currently has been in the throes of a twin process of 'democratic backsliding' and 'democratic backlash'. How would you explain this paradox?

Accepted Answer

The simultaneous global phenomena of 'democratic backsliding' and 'democratic backlash' present a profound paradox in contemporary politics. Democratic backsliding refers to the gradual erosion of democratic norms, institutions, and practices within a country, often orchestrated by elected leaders. Democratic backlash, conversely, describes the public's resistance, protests, and movements against these authoritarian tendencies or the perceived failures of democratic governance. The paradox lies in the fact that as democracy appears to be weakening, citizens are simultaneously rising up to defend or demand it. Here's how this paradox can be explained: 1. Increased Awareness and Expectations: Decades of democratic expansion and the global spread of democratic ideals have raised public expectations regarding rights, freedoms, and accountability. When these expectations are threatened by backsliding, citizens, having experienced or aspired to democratic norms, are more likely to recognize the erosion and react against it. 2. Visibility of Erosion: Democratic backsliding is rarely a sudden coup; it's often a slow, incremental process involving attacks on the judiciary, media, electoral integrity, or civil liberties. However, these actions eventually become visible and tangible to the public, triggering outrage and mobilization. For example, attempts to extend term limits, suppress protests, or control independent media often spark significant public opposition. 3. Role of Civil Society and Social Media: Even under pressure, civil society organizations, independent media (where they still exist), and opposition parties play a crucial role in documenting and exposing backsliding. Social media platforms, despite their challenges, also enable rapid information dissemination and coordination of protests, allowing citizens to organize a collective backlash against authoritarian moves. 4. Economic Discontent as a Catalyst: Backsliding often occurs in contexts of economic inequa

Question 3

Transnational actors have qualitatively transformed the world by the way of their fresh insights and actions. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.

Accepted Answer

Transnational actors (TNAs) are non-state entities that operate across national borders, influencing international relations and global governance. These include Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Multinational Corporations (MNCs), social movements, terrorist groups, and epistemic communities. Their 'fresh insights and actions' have indeed qualitatively transformed the world, moving beyond the traditional state-centric view of international politics and introducing new dynamics, issues, and power structures. Here's how TNAs have brought about this transformation, with examples: 1. Agenda Setting and Norm Creation: TNAs often bring new issues to the forefront of the international agenda that states might initially ignore or resist. They advocate for new norms and principles, influencing international law and state behavior. Example: The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), a coalition of NGOs, successfully campaigned for the Ottawa Treaty (1997) banning anti-personnel landmines. This demonstrated how non-state actors could mobilize global public opinion and pressure states to adopt a new international norm, fundamentally altering the landscape of conventional warfare. 2. Service Provision and Humanitarian Aid: In areas where states are unable or unwilling to act, TNAs often step in to provide essential services, particularly in humanitarian crises or conflict zones. Example: Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders - MSF) provides medical humanitarian assistance in areas affected by conflict, epidemics, disasters, or exclusion from healthcare. Their actions save lives and highlight the human cost of political failures, often operating independently of state control. 3. Economic Influence and Global Production: Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are powerful economic TNAs that shape global trade, investment patterns, labor practices, and technological diffusion. Their decisions can have profound impacts on national economies and sovereignty. Exa

Question 4

Of late, centrist and centre-left political parties have been facing setbacks while centre-right parties have been in ascendency the world over. Comment.

Accepted Answer

The observation that centrist and centre-left political parties have been facing setbacks while centre-right parties have been in ascendancy globally is a prominent trend in contemporary politics, particularly evident in many European democracies, North America, and parts of Latin America. This shift reflects deep-seated societal anxieties, economic transformations, and evolving political landscapes. Reasons for Setbacks of Centrist and Centre-Left Parties: 1. Economic Discontent and Inequality: Many centre-left parties, traditionally champions of social welfare and economic equality, have struggled to effectively address rising income inequality, stagnant wages, and job insecurity in the wake of globalization and financial crises (e.g., 2008). Their traditional working-class base often feels abandoned or that these parties have become too aligned with corporate interests. 2. Globalization's Discontents: Centre-left parties often supported globalization, free trade, and open borders. However, the perceived negative consequences—such as job displacement, downward pressure on wages, and cultural erosion—have alienated segments of the electorate, pushing them towards more protectionist or nationalist right-wing alternatives. 3. Immigration and Identity Politics: Centre-left parties generally advocate for more inclusive immigration policies and multiculturalism. This stance has often clashed with growing concerns about national identity, cultural change, and the perceived strain on public services, leading some voters to gravitate towards parties offering stricter immigration controls and a stronger emphasis on national identity. 4. Loss of Traditional Base: The decline of traditional industrial sectors and the rise of the gig economy have fragmented the traditional working-class voter base of centre-left parties. Simultaneously, the rise of 'post-materialist' values among some urban, educated voters has sometimes led to a disconnect with the broader electorate. 5. Lack

Question 5

Collective security and responsibility to protect (R2P) are similar but different in scope, goals and methods. Explain.

Accepted Answer

Collective security and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) are both international norms and mechanisms aimed at preventing large-scale violence and maintaining peace, but they differ significantly in their scope, goals, and methods. While both involve collective action by the international community, R2P represents an evolution in international thought, shifting focus from purely state-centric security to human security. Collective Security: Concept: Collective security is an arrangement where all states agree that an attack on one state is considered an attack on all, and therefore, all states will collectively respond to deter or repel aggression. Its foundational principle is 'one for all, and all for one.' It emerged prominently after World War I with the League of Nations and later with the United Nations. Scope: Primarily focused on inter-state aggression. It addresses threats to the territorial integrity and political independence of sovereign states from external military attack. Goals: To deter aggression between states, maintain international peace and security, and uphold the principle of state sovereignty by protecting states from external threats. Methods: Relies on collective military action, economic sanctions, and diplomatic pressure, typically authorized by an international body like the UN Security Council. It requires a consensus among powerful states and a willingness to commit resources to defend a victim state. Key Principle: Upholds state sovereignty as a fundamental principle, intervening only when one state violates the sovereignty of another. Responsibility to Protect (R2P): Concept: R2P is a global political commitment endorsed by all UN member states in 2005. It asserts that states have a primary responsibility to protect their own populations from four mass atrocity crimes: genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. If a state manifestly fails to do so, the international community has a responsibility to interv

Question 6

Discuss the psychological approach to the study of comparative politics.

Accepted Answer

The psychological approach to comparative politics delves into how individual and group psychological factors influence political behavior, decision-making, and the formation of political systems across different countries. Unlike structural or institutional approaches, it emphasizes the 'human element' in politics. At its core, this approach examines the motivations, perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and personality traits of political actors, from ordinary citizens to elite leaders. For instance, it might analyze how a leader's authoritarian personality shapes a nation's foreign policy or how collective historical traumas influence a society's political culture and its susceptibility to populist movements. Key areas of focus include: 1. Political Culture: How shared psychological orientations, values, and beliefs about politics are transmitted across generations and shape a nation's political landscape. Comparative studies might explore why some cultures are more prone to democratic participation while others favor authoritarian rule. 2. Public Opinion and Attitudes: The formation and impact of public sentiment on policy-making and political stability. This involves studying how psychological biases, group identities, and media consumption influence citizens' views on issues like immigration, economic policy, or national security. 3. Leadership Psychology: Analyzing the personality, cognitive styles, and emotional states of political leaders to understand their decision-making processes, especially during crises. This can help explain variations in leadership styles and their outcomes across different political systems. 4. Political Socialization: The process by which individuals acquire political knowledge, values, and behaviors. The psychological approach examines how agents like family, schools, and peer groups instill political orientations, which can differ significantly between open and closed societies. 5. Group Behavior and Conflict: Understanding the psych

Question 7

Neo-liberalism lightened neo-realism's dark view of international politics. Comment.

Accepted Answer

The statement accurately captures the contrasting perspectives of neo-realism and neo-liberalism on the nature of international politics, with the latter offering a more optimistic outlook on cooperation. Both are rationalist theories, but they diverge significantly in their assumptions about the possibilities for peace and cooperation in an anarchic international system. Neo-realism (Structural Realism), primarily associated with Kenneth Waltz, presents a 'dark view' of international politics. It posits that the international system is fundamentally anarchic, meaning there is no overarching authority above states. In this self-help system, states are the primary actors, driven by a desire for survival and security. They are inherently suspicious of each other's intentions and constantly seek to maximize their relative power. Cooperation is difficult, fleeting, and always subordinate to security concerns, as states fear being exploited or disadvantaged by others (relative gains concerns). Conflict is seen as an ever-present possibility, and the security dilemma – where one state's efforts to enhance its security are perceived as a threat by others – is a central feature. Neo-liberalism (Neo-liberal Institutionalism), while acknowledging the anarchic nature of the international system and the centrality of states, offers a 'lighter' or more optimistic perspective. Neo-liberals argue that anarchy does not necessarily preclude cooperation. They emphasize the crucial role of international institutions (like the UN, WTO, or regional organizations) in mitigating the effects of anarchy. These institutions can: 1. Reduce Transaction Costs: Make it easier and cheaper for states to negotiate and reach agreements. 2. Provide Information: Increase transparency and reduce uncertainty about other states' intentions, thereby alleviating the security dilemma. 3. Foster Reciprocity: Create frameworks for repeated interactions, encouraging states to cooperate for long-term absolute g

Question 8

Explain the non-traditional security threats in the context of food and environmental crises.

Accepted Answer

Non-traditional security (NTS) threats represent a broadening of the security agenda beyond the traditional focus on military threats to state sovereignty and territorial integrity. NTS threats are typically non-military in nature, often transnational, and directly impact human well-being, state stability, and global peace. Food and environmental crises are prime examples of such threats, posing complex and interconnected challenges. Food Crises as Non-Traditional Security Threats: Food security refers to the condition where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food crises, characterized by widespread food insecurity, become NTS threats because they can: 1. Trigger Social Unrest and Political Instability: Food price spikes, scarcity, or famine can lead to protests, riots, and even regime change, as seen in the Arab Spring uprisings where rising food prices were a significant factor. 2. Exacerbate Conflicts: Competition over scarce food resources, particularly in regions already prone to conflict, can intensify existing tensions or ignite new ones. 3. Drive Mass Migration: People facing starvation or chronic food insecurity are often forced to migrate, creating humanitarian crises and potentially straining resources and social cohesion in host communities. 4. Undermine State Capacity: Governments struggling to feed their populations lose legitimacy and capacity to govern, potentially leading to state fragility or collapse. 5. Impact Human Development: Chronic malnutrition and food insecurity have long-term effects on health, education, and economic productivity, hindering national development. Environmental Crises as Non-Traditional Security Threats: Environmental degradation and climate change represent a profound and existential NTS threat. These crises include: 1. Climate Change: Rising sea levels threaten coa

Question 9

Discuss the political socialization of open and closed societies.

Accepted Answer

Political socialization is the lifelong process by which individuals acquire political attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors, shaping their understanding of the political system and their role within it. The nature of this process differs significantly between open and closed societies, reflecting their fundamental political structures and goals. Political Socialization in Open Societies: Open societies are characterized by democratic institutions, freedom of expression, pluralism, rule of law, and a relatively free flow of information. In such societies, political socialization tends to be: 1. Pluralistic and Diverse: Individuals are exposed to a wide range of political ideas, ideologies, and perspectives from various sources. There is no single, dominant narrative. 2. Critical and Participatory: Socialization encourages critical thinking, questioning authority, and active participation in the political process. Citizens are expected to be informed and engaged. 3. Multi-Agent: A diverse array of agents contributes to socialization, including family, schools, peer groups, independent media, civil society organizations, religious institutions, and political parties. These agents often present competing views. 4. Emphasis on Individual Rights and Freedoms: Socialization instills values such as tolerance, respect for dissent, individual liberties, and the importance of democratic procedures. 5. Outcome: A political culture characterized by diversity of opinion, a willingness to compromise, and a citizenry capable of holding leaders accountable. This fosters political stability through legitimate contestation and adaptation. Political Socialization in Closed Societies: Closed societies are typically authoritarian or totalitarian regimes that restrict freedoms, control information, suppress dissent, and centralize power. In these societies, political socialization is generally: 1. Monolithic and Controlled: The state exerts tight control over all agents of socializat

Question 10

Comment on the Red Lipstick Movement in the context of feminist rights.

Accepted Answer

The Red Lipstick Movement is a contemporary feminist phenomenon that utilizes the act of wearing red lipstick as a symbol of protest, defiance, and solidarity in the pursuit of feminist rights. While seemingly a simple cosmetic choice, its significance is deeply rooted in challenging patriarchal norms and reclaiming agency over women's bodies and expressions. In many societies, particularly those with conservative or deeply entrenched patriarchal structures, women's appearance is heavily policed. Red lipstick, historically associated with sensuality, rebellion, or even 'immorality' in some contexts, becomes a potent symbol when worn deliberately as an act of protest. Its relevance in the context of feminist rights can be understood through several lenses: 1. Challenging Beauty Standards and Objectification: The movement reclaims red lipstick from being a tool for conforming to male gaze or societal beauty expectations. Instead, it becomes a statement of self-expression and self-ownership, asserting that women adorn themselves for themselves, not for others. It challenges the idea that women's bodies and choices are public property subject to judgment. 2. Symbol of Defiance Against Harassment and Violence: In countries like South Korea, where the movement gained significant traction, wearing red lipstick became an act of defiance against sexual harassment, victim-blaming, and the pervasive culture of misogyny. It's a visible rejection of the notion that women's appearance invites unwanted attention or justifies abuse. 3. Solidarity and Visibility: When women collectively wear red lipstick as a form of protest, it creates a powerful visual of solidarity. This collective act makes their presence and their demands for rights visible, drawing attention to issues that might otherwise be ignored or dismissed. It fosters a sense of community and shared purpose among activists. 4. Reclaiming Agency and Autonomy: The movement underscores the fundamental feminist right to bodi

Question 11

Global South-sensitive model of globalization would prevent the danger emanating from overcentralized globalization. Discuss.

Accepted Answer

Globalization, in its current form, has often been criticized as 'overcentralized,' meaning it is largely driven by and benefits the Global North, its institutions, and its dominant economic models. This has led to various dangers, including exacerbated inequalities, marginalization of developing countries, and the imposition of inappropriate policies. A 'Global South-sensitive model of globalization' proposes a more inclusive, equitable, and decentralized approach that could effectively prevent these dangers. Dangers of Overcentralized Globalization: 1. Unequal Distribution of Benefits: The current model disproportionately channels wealth, technology, and power to developed countries and multinational corporations, widening the gap between the Global North and South. Developing countries often remain suppliers of raw materials or cheap labor, with limited value addition. 2. Marginalization and Limited Voice: Global South countries often have limited influence in key global governance institutions (e.g., IMF, World Bank, WTO), which are dominated by Northern interests. This leads to policies that may not serve their specific development needs. 3. Imposition of 'One-Size-Fits-All' Policies: The 'Washington Consensus' model, advocating liberalization, privatization, and fiscal austerity, has often been imposed on developing countries through conditionalities, sometimes undermining local industries and social welfare programs. 4. Erosion of Policy Space: Developing countries often lose autonomy in shaping their economic and social policies due to international agreements, trade rules, and debt conditionalities, limiting their ability to pursue alternative development pathways. 5. Environmental Injustice: The Global South often bears a disproportionate burden of environmental degradation (e.g., pollution, resource depletion) resulting from global production and consumption patterns, while having fewer resources to adapt to climate change. 6. Cultural Homogenization: The

Question 12

Latin America has made moderate success in countering US-led global economic order by forming various organizations emphasizing regional sovereignty, economic integration and alternative development. Discuss.

Accepted Answer

Latin America has historically been under the significant economic and political influence of the United States, particularly through the 'Washington Consensus' which promoted neoliberal policies of liberalization, privatization, and deregulation. However, in recent decades, especially during the 'Pink Tide' era of left-leaning governments, Latin American nations have made concerted efforts to counter this US-led global economic order by forming various regional organizations emphasizing regional sovereignty, economic integration, and alternative development models. While these efforts have yielded moderate success, they have also faced considerable challenges. Motivations for Countering US-led Order: 1. Desire for Autonomy: A long history of US intervention and economic dominance fueled a desire for greater political and economic sovereignty. 2. Critique of Neoliberalism: The Washington Consensus policies often led to increased inequality and social unrest, prompting a search for alternative development models focused on social welfare and state intervention. 3. Regional Solidarity: A shared history and cultural identity fostered a sense of regional solidarity to collectively address common challenges and enhance bargaining power on the global stage. Key Organizations and Their Successes/Limitations: 1. MERCOSUR (Southern Common Market): Emphasis: Economic integration, free movement of goods, services, capital, and people among its core members (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay). Successes: Significantly increased intra-regional trade, fostered political coordination, and provided a platform for members to negotiate with larger blocs (e.g., EU) with greater leverage. It represented a move towards regional economic self-reliance. Limitations: Internal disputes, economic crises in member states, slow progress on deeper integration, and challenges in achieving a common external policy have hampered its full potential. 2. UNASUR (Union of South American Nations): (

Question 13

Historical ties between India and Japan grew into a 'special strategic and global partnership'. Comment.

Accepted Answer

The relationship between India and Japan has indeed evolved remarkably from historical ties into a 'Special Strategic and Global Partnership,' reflecting a profound convergence of interests and values in the 21st century. While their historical interactions were largely cultural and economic, the past two decades have witnessed an accelerated deepening of their engagement across all dimensions. Historically, India and Japan shared ancient Buddhist links and a mutual respect that largely transcended colonial-era dynamics. Post-independence, Japan was one of the first countries to offer Official Development Assistance (ODA) to India, contributing significantly to India's infrastructure development. However, the relationship remained somewhat understated for decades, primarily focused on economic cooperation. The transformation into a 'Special Strategic and Global Partnership' began to gain momentum in the early 2000s, driven by several factors: 1. Economic Complementarities: Japan, a technologically advanced economy, found a vast and growing market in India, while India sought Japanese investment and technology for its infrastructure and manufacturing sectors. Japan has become a major investor in India, particularly in large-scale infrastructure projects like the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) and the Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail project. India is also a significant recipient of Japanese ODA. 2. Strategic Convergence: Both nations share a deep commitment to a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region, based on the rule of law and freedom of navigation. This vision is a direct response to the changing geopolitical landscape, particularly China's growing assertiveness in the region. This convergence led to the formation of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) with the US and Australia, and numerous bilateral and trilateral security dialogues. 3. Defence and Security Cooperation: Defence ties have expanded significantly, including regular joint mil

Question 14

"Trump's return to the White House is a jolt to push the European Union to invest in its own defence and economic and technological revival." Comment.

Accepted Answer

The statement posits that a potential return of Donald Trump to the White House could serve as a significant catalyst for the European Union to accelerate its investments in defence, economic resilience, and technological sovereignty. This perspective holds considerable merit, given Trump's past policies and rhetoric, which often challenged traditional transatlantic alliances and multilateral frameworks. Regarding defence, Trump's 'America First' approach during his first term led to persistent criticism of European allies for insufficient defence spending and even questioning the foundational principles of NATO. He often threatened to withdraw US support or reduce its commitment to European security. Such actions created a sense of vulnerability and urgency within the EU, prompting discussions about 'strategic autonomy' and the need for Europe to take greater responsibility for its own security. A second Trump presidency, potentially marked by similar or even more pronounced skepticism towards NATO, would undoubtedly intensify this pressure. It could force EU member states to significantly increase their defence budgets, pool resources more effectively through initiatives like Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) and the European Defence Fund, and develop independent military capabilities, rather than relying primarily on the US security umbrella. Economically and technologically, Trump's previous administration pursued protectionist trade policies, imposed tariffs on European goods, and engaged in trade disputes. This created uncertainty and highlighted the EU's economic vulnerabilities, particularly its reliance on global supply chains and external markets. A renewed push for protectionism or unilateral trade actions by a second Trump administration would compel the EU to further diversify its economic partnerships, strengthen its internal market, and invest heavily in critical sectors to reduce external dependencies. This includes fostering domestic innovati

Question 15

Does the Non-Aligned Movement have any future in the wake of India's growing indifference towards it?

Accepted Answer

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), born during the Cold War as a platform for newly independent states to avoid alignment with either the US or Soviet blocs, faces significant questions about its future relevance. India, a founding member and a historical leader of NAM, has indeed shown a growing indifference towards the movement, which further fuels these doubts. However, to declare NAM entirely obsolete would be premature, as it still holds potential, albeit in a significantly altered role. India's perceived indifference stems from a fundamental shift in its foreign policy post-Cold War. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, NAM's original raison d'être – navigating a bipolar world – evaporated. India, embracing economic liberalization and a more pragmatic, multi-aligned foreign policy, began to forge strategic partnerships with major global powers, including the US, Russia, and the EU. Its active participation in new groupings like BRICS, SCO, G20, and the Quad reflects a focus on national interest and strategic autonomy rather than strict non-alignment. Prime Minister Narendra Modi's decision to skip NAM summits, a first for an Indian PM, symbolized this shift. Despite India's waning enthusiasm, NAM's future is not entirely bleak. It still represents a significant bloc of 120 developing countries, giving it a collective voice in multilateral forums like the United Nations. In a world grappling with new challenges such as climate change, pandemics, economic inequality, cyber security, and the resurgence of great power competition, NAM can potentially find renewed purpose: 1. Collective Bargaining: NAM can serve as a platform for developing nations to collectively advocate for their interests on global issues, ensuring their voices are heard in a world still dominated by powerful states. 2. South-South Cooperation: It can foster greater cooperation among developing countries on economic, technological, and developmental fronts, reducing reliance on traditional aid d

Question 16

Would you agree with the contention that India's inclination to lean on a 'more aggressive hyper-realist posture' has gained a new momentum in the aftermath of the Pahalgam terrorist strike? Comment.

Accepted Answer

The contention that India's foreign policy has increasingly adopted a 'more aggressive hyper-realist posture' and that this gained new momentum after the Pahalgam terrorist strike in 2000 is largely agreeable. While the shift wasn't solely attributable to Pahalgam, this incident, along with others, contributed significantly to a hardening of India's stance, moving away from a purely defensive or reactive approach to one that is more assertive and willing to project power. Historically, India's foreign policy, particularly in response to cross-border terrorism, was often characterized by strategic restraint, diplomatic pressure, and a reliance on international condemnation. This approach, rooted in its non-aligned principles and a desire to avoid escalation, often led to frustration domestically and a perception of weakness internationally. The Pahalgam attack, where terrorists massacred pilgrims, underscored the vulnerability of India to such acts and the limitations of a purely diplomatic response. The aftermath of Pahalgam, and subsequent major attacks like the 2001 Indian Parliament attack and the 2008 Mumbai attacks, gradually pushed India towards a more robust and proactive security doctrine. This 'hyper-realist posture' can be understood as an approach that prioritizes national security and interests above all else, is less constrained by ideological considerations, and is willing to consider and employ all instruments of state power, including military force, to achieve its objectives. Key manifestations of this shift include: 1. Proactive Counter-Terrorism: A greater willingness to consider and execute pre-emptive or retaliatory strikes against terrorist infrastructure across borders. While the 'Cold Start' doctrine (though never officially acknowledged) emerged earlier, the political will to act on such doctrines became more evident. The 2016 surgical strikes following the Uri attack and the 2019 Balakot airstrike after Pulwama are prime examples of this ne

Question 17

Critically analyze the different phases of India's foreign policy since independence. How justified, do you think, is S. Jaishankar's classification of the current phase as the phase of 'energetic diplomacy'?

Accepted Answer

India's foreign policy since independence has undergone significant transformations, adapting to evolving domestic priorities and a dynamic global landscape. While various scholars offer different periodizations, a broad analysis reveals distinct phases: 1. Phase 1: Idealism and Non-Alignment (1947-1962): Led by Jawaharlal Nehru, this era was characterized by a moralistic approach, anti-colonialism, advocacy for Panchsheel (five principles of peaceful coexistence), and the pursuit of Non-Alignment. India sought to maintain strategic autonomy, avoid entanglement in Cold War blocs, and focus on nation-building. This phase saw India emerge as a voice for the Global South but also faced challenges, notably the 1962 Sino-Indian War, which exposed the limitations of an idealistic foreign policy. 2. Phase 2: Pragmatic Non-Alignment and Realism (1962-1991): Post-1962, India's foreign policy became more pragmatic, with a greater emphasis on national security. While non-alignment continued, it was often tilted towards the Soviet Union, culminating in the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation. This period saw India develop its nuclear capabilities, assert its regional dominance (e.g., 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War), and navigate a complex Cold War environment, balancing its interests with ideological commitments. 3. Phase 3: Economic Liberalization and Global Engagement (1991-early 2000s): The end of the Cold War and India's economic reforms in 1991 ushered in a new era. Foreign policy became increasingly driven by economic imperatives. India shed some of its ideological baggage, initiated the 'Look East' policy, and began improving ties with the US, Israel, and ASEAN. Nuclear tests in 1998 led to sanctions but also forced a re-evaluation of India's global standing, eventually leading to closer strategic engagement with the US. 4. Phase 4: Strategic Autonomy and Multi-alignment (early 2000s-2014): As India's economic and strategic weight grew, it pursue

Question 18

China's growing footprint and a tangible shift in power dynamics in Bangladesh has weakened India's leverage in Dhaka. Comment.

Accepted Answer

The assertion that China's growing footprint and the resultant shift in power dynamics in Bangladesh have weakened India's leverage in Dhaka is largely accurate. Bangladesh, strategically located at the confluence of South and Southeast Asia and bordering India's sensitive northeastern states, has become a crucial arena for geopolitical competition between India and China. While India historically enjoyed significant influence due to shared history, culture, and geography, China's economic might and strategic overtures have undeniably altered the regional balance. China's strategy in Bangladesh is primarily driven by its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), offering massive infrastructure projects, loans, and investments. Beijing has become Bangladesh's largest trading partner and a significant source of foreign direct investment. Projects like the Padma Bridge, various power plants, and port development initiatives (e.g., Payra Port) are tangible examples of China's deep economic engagement. Furthermore, China is a major supplier of military hardware to Bangladesh, including submarines, frigates, and fighter jets, enhancing its strategic presence in the Bay of Bengal. This growing Chinese presence has several implications for India's leverage: 1. Economic Diversification: Bangladesh is actively diversifying its economic partnerships, reducing its historical dependence on India. China offers large-scale, often faster-executed projects with substantial financial backing, which can be more appealing to Dhaka's development aspirations. 2. Strategic Concerns: China's increasing naval presence and port development activities in the Bay of Bengal raise significant security concerns for India, particularly regarding its maritime domain and the security of its eastern flank. Bangladesh's balancing act between the two Asian giants becomes more pronounced, potentially limiting its willingness to align exclusively with India's strategic interests. 3. Political Influence: While Indi

Question 19

For India, a multipolar world order would also mean a multipolar Asia. Comment.

Accepted Answer

The statement that for India, a multipolar world order inherently implies a multipolar Asia is profoundly accurate and central to India's strategic thinking. India's foreign policy has consistently advocated for a multipolar global order, believing it fosters greater stability, allows for strategic autonomy, and provides more equitable global governance. However, this global vision is incomplete without a corresponding multipolar structure in its immediate Asian neighborhood. A multipolar world order, characterized by multiple centers of power (e.g., US, China, EU, Russia, India, Japan), reduces the dominance of any single hegemon. For India, this translates into greater flexibility in foreign policy, allowing it to forge issue-based alliances and maintain strategic autonomy without being forced into rigid blocs. It enhances India's bargaining power and provides opportunities to shape global norms and institutions. However, if the global order were multipolar but Asia remained unipolar or bipolar (e.g., dominated by China or a US-China rivalry), India's strategic space would be severely constrained. A unipolar Asia, particularly one dominated by China, would pose significant security and economic challenges for India. It would limit India's regional influence, potentially undermine its sovereignty, and create an unfavorable balance of power along its borders and in the Indian Ocean region. Therefore, for India, a multipolar Asia is not merely desirable but essential for realizing its global aspirations and ensuring its national security. A multipolar Asia would entail: 1. Balance of Power: The presence of multiple strong regional actors (India, Japan, South Korea, ASEAN, Australia) acts as a natural check on the ambitions of any single power, preventing hegemony and promoting regional stability. 2. Strategic Space: It allows India to emerge as a significant pole in its own right, rather than being a junior partner or being overshadowed by a dominant power. This enab

Question 20

India maintains strong ties with countries that will assure a free and open Indo-Pacific and guarantee greater connectivity with rest of the world. Analyze.

Accepted Answer

India's foreign policy in the 21st century is increasingly centered on fostering a 'free and open Indo-Pacific' (FOIP) and enhancing global connectivity. To achieve these objectives, India has strategically cultivated strong ties with like-minded countries, recognizing that collective action and robust partnerships are essential in a complex geopolitical landscape. Assuring a Free and Open Indo-Pacific: India's vision for the Indo-Pacific is inclusive, rules-based, and respects the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations. It emphasizes freedom of navigation and overflight, peaceful resolution of disputes, and adherence to international law. To realize this, India has strengthened its relationships with key partners: 1. The Quad (India, US, Japan, Australia): This informal strategic dialogue is a cornerstone of India's FOIP strategy. The Quad partners collaborate on maritime security, infrastructure development, critical and emerging technologies, climate change, and vaccine diplomacy, all aimed at promoting a rules-based order and countering coercive actions in the region. 2. Bilateral Strategic Partnerships: India has deepened its strategic ties with the United States, Japan, Australia, France, and Vietnam. These partnerships involve enhanced defence cooperation, joint military exercises, intelligence sharing, and coordinated diplomatic efforts to uphold FOIP principles. For instance, India's logistics agreements with several countries facilitate greater interoperability and presence in the Indian Ocean Region. 3. ASEAN Centrality: India places ASEAN at the heart of its Indo-Pacific vision and 'Act East' policy. Strong ties with ASEAN member states like Singapore, Indonesia, and Vietnam are crucial for regional stability, economic integration, and maritime security in Southeast Asia. 4. European Engagement: India is increasingly engaging with European powers like France, Germany, and the UK, which have also articulated their own Indo-Pacific strategies

Question 21

The tariff threats have pushed India and the European Union closer. Evaluate the India-EU partnership.

Accepted Answer

The assertion that global tariff threats, particularly those emanating from protectionist policies of major economies, have pushed India and the European Union closer is largely accurate. Both India and the EU, as proponents of a rules-based multilateral trading system, found common ground in navigating a turbulent global trade environment. This shared challenge has provided a significant impetus to deepen their long-standing, yet often underperforming, partnership. How Tariff Threats Fostered Closer Ties: 1. Diversification of Supply Chains: The imposition of tariffs and trade wars, especially between the US and China, highlighted the vulnerabilities of concentrated global supply chains. Both India and the EU sought to diversify their economic dependencies, with India emerging as an attractive alternative manufacturing hub for European companies adopting a 'China Plus One' strategy. 2. Shared Commitment to Multilateralism: Both India and the EU are strong advocates for the World Trade Organization (WTO) and a predictable, rules-based international trading order. Unilateral tariff actions challenged this shared principle, prompting them to collaborate more closely in defending multilateral trade norms. 3. Strategic Autonomy: Both entities are increasingly focused on enhancing their strategic autonomy – the ability to act independently in their own interests. This shared objective led to a search for reliable and like-minded partners, with India and the EU recognizing each other's strategic importance. Evaluation of the India-EU Partnership: The India-EU partnership is a relationship of immense potential, built on shared democratic values, economic complementarities, and converging strategic interests. It has seen significant momentum in recent years, particularly since the 2021 India-EU Leaders' Meeting. Strengths: Economic Powerhouses: The EU is India's third-largest trading partner and a major source of foreign direct investment. India, with its vast market and gr

Question 22

How successful has the 'ASEAN Plus Three' been in addressing regional problems? Support your answer with specific examples.

Accepted Answer

The ASEAN Plus Three (APT) framework, comprising the ten member states of ASEAN and China, Japan, and South Korea, was established in 1997 amidst the Asian Financial Crisis. Its primary objective was to foster closer cooperation and address regional challenges, particularly in economic and financial stability, but also extending to political-security and socio-cultural domains. Overall, the APT has demonstrated considerable success in enhancing regional cooperation and dialogue, though its effectiveness can vary depending on the specific issue. In the economic and financial sphere, the APT has been particularly successful. A key achievement is the Chiang Mai Initiative Multilateralisation (CMIM), a multilateral currency swap arrangement designed to provide financial support to member countries facing short-term liquidity problems. This mechanism, with its substantial fund, serves as a crucial regional safety net, preventing a recurrence of the 1997 crisis. Furthermore, the APT has promoted trade and investment through various initiatives, including discussions on regional free trade agreements and enhancing supply chain resilience. The ASEAN+3 Emergency Rice Reserve (APTERR) is another tangible example, established to ensure food security in the region by providing emergency rice stocks during natural disasters or food shortages. In addressing non-traditional security threats, the APT has facilitated cooperation on issues like disaster management, counter-terrorism, and public health. Following outbreaks like SARS and H1N1, the APT countries enhanced collaboration on disease surveillance, prevention, and control, sharing best practices and resources. Regular ministerial meetings and senior officials' consultations across various sectors, including finance, agriculture, tourism, and environment, have created robust platforms for dialogue and coordination. However, the APT's success in addressing more contentious political-security problems, such as territorial disput

Question 23

India continues to invoke its time-tested policy of strategic autonomy vis-à-vis both the United States of America and Russia by rejecting US' offer of mediation on Kashmir issue and by refusing to criticize Russia in its ongoing war against Ukraine. Comment.

Accepted Answer

India's foreign policy is fundamentally guided by the principle of strategic autonomy, a time-tested approach that prioritizes national interests and independent decision-making over alignment with any particular power bloc. This policy is evident in its nuanced engagement with both the United States and Russia, particularly concerning the Kashmir issue and the Ukraine conflict. Regarding the United States' offer of mediation on Kashmir, India has consistently rejected any third-party intervention. This stance is rooted in its long-held position that Kashmir is a bilateral issue with Pakistan, as enshrined in the Simla Agreement of 1972. Accepting US mediation would not only undermine India's sovereignty over the region but also set a precedent for external interference in its internal affairs. India views such offers as an attempt to internationalize a matter it considers strictly bilateral, and its refusal is a clear assertion of its sovereign right to manage its own territorial disputes without external pressure. Similarly, India's refusal to openly criticize Russia for its actions in Ukraine is a direct manifestation of its strategic autonomy. This position is shaped by several factors: 1. Historical Ties and Defense Dependence: Russia has been a long-standing and reliable defense partner for India, supplying a significant portion of its military hardware. A strong relationship with Russia is crucial for India's defense preparedness, especially given its complex security environment. 2. Energy Security: India relies on Russian oil and other commodities, which have become more accessible and affordable amidst Western sanctions. Diversifying its energy sources and securing affordable supplies is a key national interest. 3. Multipolar Worldview: India advocates for a multipolar world order and believes in resolving conflicts through dialogue and diplomacy rather than through sanctions and military confrontation. Its non-condemnatory stance aligns with its broader f

Question 24

Trump's unilateral imposition of reciprocal tariffs on scores of countries poses impending threat to the future of the rule-based multilateral global trading system under the WTO. What options do the WTO members have to salvage the organization?

Accepted Answer

The unilateral imposition of tariffs, as exemplified by the Trump administration's actions, represents a significant threat to the foundational principles of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the rule-based multilateral global trading system. Such actions undermine the WTO's core tenets of non-discrimination, predictability, and the peaceful resolution of trade disputes, leading to retaliatory measures, trade wars, and a general erosion of trust among trading partners. To salvage the organization and reinforce the multilateral trading system, WTO members have several critical options: 1. Resolve the Appellate Body Crisis: The most immediate and pressing issue is the paralysis of the WTO's Appellate Body, caused by the US blocking appointments of new judges. Members must engage in constructive dialogue to reform the dispute settlement mechanism, addressing US concerns while ensuring the body's impartiality and effectiveness. A functioning dispute settlement system is vital for enforcing rules and providing legal certainty. 2. Update and Modernize WTO Rules: Many WTO rules are outdated and do not adequately address 21st-century trade realities. Members need to negotiate new rules on issues such as e-commerce, digital trade, agricultural subsidies, industrial subsidies (especially those by state-owned enterprises), intellectual property rights, and trade-related aspects of climate change. Modernizing the rulebook would make the WTO more relevant and effective in governing contemporary global trade. 3. Embrace Plurilateral Agreements: When consensus among all 164 members is difficult, plurilateral agreements (agreements among a subset of WTO members) can be a pragmatic way forward. These agreements, such as those on services domestic regulation or investment facilitation, can create new rules and norms, provided they remain open for other members to join later, thus avoiding fragmentation of the system. 4. Strengthen Transparency and Monitoring: Enhancing transpare

Question 25

NonAlignment 2.0 underscores India's unique aspiration to emerge as a site for an alternative universality. Comment.

Accepted Answer

NonAlignment 2.0 represents an evolution of India's foundational foreign policy doctrine, adapting the original principles of non-alignment to the complexities of a multipolar 21st-century world. It moves beyond passive neutrality to a more proactive and strategic engagement, underscoring India's ambition to emerge not just as a significant global player, but as a 'site for an alternative universality.' The concept of 'alternative universality' implies that India seeks to offer a distinct model or perspective on global governance, development, and international relations, one that challenges the prevailing Western-centric or hegemonic narratives. It is an aspiration to present a pluralistic, inclusive, and equitable vision for the global order, rooted in India's unique civilizational values and democratic experience. Several aspects define how NonAlignment 2.0 embodies this aspiration: 1. Strategic Autonomy in a Multipolar World: While the original non-alignment sought to avoid Cold War blocs, NonAlignment 2.0 emphasizes independent decision-making in a world with multiple power centers. India engages with all major powers (US, Russia, China, EU) based on its national interests, without being tied to any single alliance. This autonomy allows it to forge diverse partnerships and contribute to global issues from a non-aligned perspective. 2. Pluralistic Global Order: India advocates for a world order that respects diverse cultures, political systems, and economic models, rather than a monolithic one. It champions multilateralism and the reform of global institutions (like the UN Security Council) to reflect contemporary realities and ensure greater representation for the Global South. 3. South-South Cooperation and Development Model: India positions itself as a partner from the Global South, offering a development model based on capacity building, technology transfer, and mutual respect, rather than aid dependency or resource extraction. Its initiatives in Africa, Lat

Question 26

India's reluctance to perceive any 'existential threat' inevitably made the multilateral path to nuclear security a 'default option' until it decided to cross the nuclear Rubicon in 1998. Identify and analyze some of the major reasons behind this shift in India's position on the nuclear question.

Accepted Answer

For decades after its first nuclear test in 1974 (Pokhran-I), India maintained a policy of 'recessed deterrence,' emphasizing the peaceful uses of nuclear energy while advocating for global nuclear disarmament. Its approach to nuclear security was largely through the multilateral path, pushing for a non-discriminatory, universal ban on nuclear weapons. This stance was predicated on a perceived lack of immediate 'existential threat' that would necessitate overt weaponization. However, this position dramatically shifted in 1998 when India conducted a series of nuclear tests (Pokhran-II), openly declaring itself a nuclear weapons state and crossing the 'nuclear Rubicon.' Several major reasons underpinned this profound shift in India's nuclear position: 1. Deteriorating Regional Security Environment: The most critical driver was the significant deterioration of India's security landscape. China, a nuclear-armed neighbor, had not only developed a formidable nuclear arsenal but was also widely believed to have assisted Pakistan's covert nuclear weapons program. Pakistan's advanced, undeclared nuclear capabilities, coupled with its conventional military parity and historical animosity, created a direct and immediate nuclear threat to India. The 1998 tests were explicitly justified as a response to this 'deteriorating security environment.' 2. Failure of Multilateral Disarmament Efforts: India had consistently championed universal and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament. However, the nuclear-weapon states (P5) showed little inclination to disarm, instead reinforcing the discriminatory Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) regime, which India refused to sign. The indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 and the impending Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996, which India viewed as perpetuating nuclear apartheid by freezing the status quo, convinced India that the multilateral path was not leading to disarmament but rather to its permanent disadvantage. India felt it needed

Question 27

Discuss some of the key drivers of India's new interests in Africa which might help in developing long-term comparative advantage over China.

Accepted Answer

Africa has emerged as a crucial continent in India's foreign policy, driven by a confluence of economic, geopolitical, and historical factors. India's renewed and intensified engagement with Africa is not merely a response to China's dominant presence but a strategic move to foster long-term, mutually beneficial partnerships, potentially offering a comparative advantage over China's approach. Key Drivers of India's New Interests in Africa: 1. Economic Opportunities: Africa's rapidly growing economies, large consumer base, and vast natural resources present significant opportunities for India. India seeks access to critical minerals, oil, and gas to fuel its own economic growth. Additionally, Africa offers burgeoning markets for Indian goods and services, particularly in pharmaceuticals, IT, automobiles, and consumer goods. Indian companies are also investing in infrastructure, manufacturing, and agriculture across the continent. 2. Geopolitical Significance: Africa's 54 nations represent a significant voting bloc in international forums, crucial for India's aspirations for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and its broader goal of a multipolar world order. India also views the Indian Ocean Region, bordering East Africa, as vital for its maritime security and trade routes, making stable and friendly African partners essential. 3. South-South Cooperation and Shared Values: India leverages its historical ties, shared colonial past, and experience as a developing democracy to foster a narrative of South-South cooperation. This approach emphasizes partnership, capacity building, and mutual respect, resonating with many African nations seeking alternatives to traditional donor-recipient relationships. 4. Counterbalancing China's Influence: While not explicitly stated, India's increased engagement is partly a strategic response to China's extensive footprint in Africa. India aims to offer an alternative development model that is perceived as more sustainable and l

Question 28

Discuss the potential role India can play in initiating a possible phase of trilateral economic engagement among India, China and Nepal.

Accepted Answer

The idea of trilateral economic engagement among India, China, and Nepal holds significant potential for regional prosperity and stability, particularly for landlocked Nepal, which sits between two of Asia's largest economies. While geopolitical complexities and historical rivalries exist, India can play a crucial and proactive role in initiating and facilitating such a phase of cooperation. Rationale for Trilateral Engagement: 1. Nepal's Development: Nepal stands to gain immensely from enhanced connectivity, trade, and investment from both its giant neighbors, diversifying its economic options and reducing over-reliance on any single partner. 2. Economic Complementarities: India and China offer vast markets, capital, and technological expertise, while Nepal possesses significant hydropower potential, natural resources, and a strategic location for transit trade. 3. Regional Stability: Economic cooperation can foster trust, reduce geopolitical tensions, and create a shared stake in regional peace and development. Potential Areas of Trilateral Economic Engagement: 1. Connectivity and Infrastructure: Joint development of cross-border infrastructure, including roads, railways, and transmission lines, connecting India, Nepal, and China. This would facilitate trade, tourism, and people-to-people exchanges. 2. Hydropower Development: Nepal's vast hydropower potential can be developed with trilateral investment and technical expertise, with power potentially exported to both India and China, addressing energy demands in the region. 3. Tourism: Joint tourism packages leveraging the unique cultural and natural attractions of the Himalayan region, promoting cross-border tourism circuits. 4. Trade and Investment: Facilitating easier movement of goods and services, and encouraging trilateral investment in manufacturing, agriculture, and services sectors within Nepal. 5. Disaster Management and Environmental Protection: Cooperation on trans-boundary issues like floods, earthquak

Political Science and IR Optional 2025 Paper II

28 Questions Available

Political Science and IR Optional 2025 Paper II

28 Questions Available

Question 1: The withdrawal of the United States of America from the World Health Organization is set to have far-reaching impacts on global health. Reimagining th

Question 2: The world currently has been in the throes of a twin process of 'democratic backsliding' and 'democratic backlash'. How would you explain this paradox

Question 3: Transnational actors have qualitatively transformed the world by the way of their fresh insights and actions. Illustrate your answer with suitable exa

Question 4: Of late, centrist and centre-left political parties have been facing setbacks while centre-right parties have been in ascendency the world over. Comme

Question 5: Collective security and responsibility to protect (R2P) are similar but different in scope, goals and methods. Explain.

Question 6: Discuss the psychological approach to the study of comparative politics.

Question 7: Neo-liberalism lightened neo-realism's dark view of international politics. Comment.

Question 8: Explain the non-traditional security threats in the context of food and environmental crises.

Question 9: Discuss the political socialization of open and closed societies.

Question 10: Comment on the Red Lipstick Movement in the context of feminist rights.

Question 11: Global South-sensitive model of globalization would prevent the danger emanating from overcentralized globalization. Discuss.

Question 12: Latin America has made moderate success in countering US-led global economic order by forming various organizations emphasizing regional sovereignty,

Question 13: Historical ties between India and Japan grew into a 'special strategic and global partnership'. Comment.

Question 14: "Trump's return to the White House is a jolt to push the European Union to invest in its own defence and economic and technological revival." Comment.

Question 15: Does the Non-Aligned Movement have any future in the wake of India's growing indifference towards it?

Question 16: Would you agree with the contention that India's inclination to lean on a 'more aggressive hyper-realist posture' has gained a new momentum in the aft

Question 17: Critically analyze the different phases of India's foreign policy since independence. How justified, do you think, is S. Jaishankar's classification o

Question 18: China's growing footprint and a tangible shift in power dynamics in Bangladesh has weakened India's leverage in Dhaka. Comment.

Question 19: For India, a multipolar world order would also mean a multipolar Asia. Comment.

Question 20: India maintains strong ties with countries that will assure a free and open Indo-Pacific and guarantee greater connectivity with rest of the world. An

Question 21: The tariff threats have pushed India and the European Union closer. Evaluate the India-EU partnership.

Question 22: How successful has the 'ASEAN Plus Three' been in addressing regional problems? Support your answer with specific examples.

Question 23: India continues to invoke its time-tested policy of strategic autonomy vis-à-vis both the United States of America and Russia by rejecting US' offer o

Question 24: Trump's unilateral imposition of reciprocal tariffs on scores of countries poses impending threat to the future of the rule-based multilateral global

Question 25: NonAlignment 2.0 underscores India's unique aspiration to emerge as a site for an alternative universality. Comment.

Question 26: India's reluctance to perceive any 'existential threat' inevitably made the multilateral path to nuclear security a 'default option' until it decided

Question 27: Discuss some of the key drivers of India's new interests in Africa which might help in developing long-term comparative advantage over China.

Question 28: Discuss the potential role India can play in initiating a possible phase of trilateral economic engagement among India, China and Nepal.